The cannabis plant belongs to the Cannabaceae family and conservatively contains over 80 chemical substances. Other publications suggest cannabis has over 500 chemical compounds, with the exact number remaining a mystery due to the scarcity of cannabis research.
These compounds are cannabinoids, flavonoids, terpenes (also known as terpenoids), omega fatty acids, essential oils, and vitamins.
Terpenes, for instance, are believed to be the reason behind scent, aroma, and color. Furthermore, research shows that they have various physiologic properties and could be responsible for some of the observed effects of cannabis.
Although nearly all plants have terpenes, these naturally occurring chemical compounds are mostly sourced from cannabis, citrus fruits, and aromatic herbs like thyme and sage.
In this article:
What are cannabis-derived terpenes?
When using cannabis or products made from cannabis, you may have caught a whiff of an invigorating piney or earthy scent. This fragrance arises from a subtle blend of aromatic compounds known as terpenes.
In addition to giving cannabis its distinct taste and smell, terpenes are believed to have a wide range of potential therapeutic benefits. So understanding what terpenes are and some of their effects on the body will help you get the most out of your stash.
Scientifically speaking, terpenes are aromatic oils found in the trichomes of the cannabis plant — the same gland-like structures that produce cannabinoids like CBD and THC. Currently, it is thought that there are over 100 different types of cannabis terpenes. They are not psychoactive, so they will not make you "high" in the traditional sense, but some evidence suggests they may have helpful wellness benefits, including relieving pain, swelling, and soreness.
Different strains of cannabis tend to have somewhat different terpene profiles. If you’re looking into the possible benefits of hemp for decreasing pain and inflammation, understanding the effects of these molecules may help you make a better choice.
8 Best Terpenes for Relieving Aches and Pains
In the same way cannabinoids have different effects, so do terpenes. However, it should not surprise you that most of their properties overlap. This is a good thing because it means you have many options. In no particular order, here are the top 8 terpenes associated with pain relief.
#1: ꞵ-Caryophyllene
Beta-caryophyllene is considered an unconventional cannabinoid since it binds specifically to the CB2 receptor. The euphoric properties of some cannabinoids, notably THC, are mediated through the CB1 receptor. In contrast, CB2 is a pharmacological target for treating pain and inflammation, osteoporosis, and atherosclerosis, especially in peripheral body tissues.
A 2023 study showed that caryophyllene reduced pain and demonstrated an antibacterial effect in mice with urinary tract infections, and several other papers suggest it may be among the best terpenes for nerve pain. This terpene may also enhance the painkilling properties of low-strength morphine.
Though not as abundant as myrcene, caryophyllene exists in about 13% of cannabis strains. It contributes a spicy, pepper-like smell.
#2: Myrcene
This terpene’s scientific name is beta-myrcene, and it’s believed to be the most dominant terpene in marijuana, with its presence in over 40% of cannabis strains. Its pain-relieving properties were discovered in 1990 and have since been replicated in studies on mice.
The aroma of myrcene is often described as earthy, musty, and slightly peppery, with some comparing it to cloves. Cannabis users sometimes refer to this as the flower’s “dank” smell. This is the most common terpene and is reported to intensify THC's euphoric effects.
#3: α-Humulene
Alpha-humulene, often shortened to just “humulene,” is the terpene that gives the distinctive aroma of hops flowers. It’s believed to be a strong painkiller, whether applied topically, taken orally, or inhaled. This may be due to its systemic and local anti-inflammatory characteristics, as well as potential direct effects on nociception (the perception of pain by the nervous system).
A team of researchers investigating the effects of terpenes identified four terpenes that seemed to mimic the activity of cannabis in some respects — including decreased sensitivity to pain. One of them was humulene. The addition of a synthetic cannabinoid receptor agonist increased this effect, which lends credence to the "entourage effect” — the idea that terpenes and cannabinoids may work best in combination.
Among other effects, humulene activates the CB1 receptor, which is also stimulated by several cannabinoids including THC. Expressed predominantly in the brain, lungs, kidneys, liver, and central nervous system, the CB1 receptor regulates the release of neurotransmitters like serotonin, glutamate, and dopamine to produce wide-ranging effects such as pain relief.
#4: Linalool
Fresh flowers come to mind when you smell linalool, thanks to its sweet and lavender-like aroma with a tinge of spice. This is another of the four terpenes linked to pain relief in the study mentioned above. Other researchers have noted that it acts as a localized painkiller, potentially due to its effect on a variety of stress-reactive nerve receptors.
Furthermore, this terpene may alleviate symptoms of stress and anxiety since it has a sedative and soothing effect. We rank it high on our list of the best terpenes for relaxation. Research is ongoing to see whether it can effectively treat particular conditions, but a 2017 study showed that aromatherapy of linalool combined with piperonal, cedrol, and santalol reduced sleep difficulties among the elderly with dementia.
#5: ꞵ-Pinene
Beta-pinene, as the name suggests, is the source of the characteristic woodsy smell of pine trees. It’s believed to be quite effective in promoting pain relief, having shown analgesic potential in several studies.
For instance, a 2016 paper reported that beta-pinene plays a role in the ability of frankincense to reduce localized pain and swelling. This effect might be related to the compound’s ability to decrease inflammation, the immune response that leads to painful redness and soreness.
#6: Geraniol
Geraniol was shown to contribute to THC-like effects including pain relief in the same paper that identified humulene, pinene, and linalool. Other investigations have shown positive effects on nerve pain in rats with spinal cord injuries. Interestingly, this terpene also seems to reduce itching.
The smell of geraniol has often been compared to roses (one of several flowers that produce it) and is usually described as sweet and floral.
#7: Limonene
The major chemical form of limonene, d-limonene, is present in the rind of citrus fruits, e.g., lemon and orange. Not surprisingly, it provides a zesty, tangy aroma that reminds many people of these foods. Limonene is one of the most abundant terpenes in nature, and it’s present in many strains of cannabis.
Limonene is believed to have antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, and several disease-preventive qualities. Studies in mice have demonstrated its ability to reduce facial and muscle pain, though it might be less effective for pain related to heat and cold.
#8: Terpinene
There are several forms of terpinene present in cannabis, but one of them — gamma-terpinene, which has a turpentine-like odor — has been reported to have potential soothing effects. Researchers have found that it can decrease the painful effects of chemicals like capsaicin (the spicy ingredient in hot peppers) and formalin (a chemical that causes painful inflammation).
6 Best Terpenes For Inflammation
Persistent or overactive inflammation can contribute to a variety of health complications, including chronic pain, heart disease, cancer, and mental illness. Some of the terpenes found in hemp may offer relief. There are simply too many terpenes with anti-inflammatory potential to name, but let's focus on some of the more well-known ones:
#1: Linalool
Scientists suspect that many of the terpenes we listed above achieve their pain-relieving effects at least partly through their ability to fight inflammation. Linalool is one notable example. A 2022 experiment reported that this terpene inhibited the inflammatory disease osteoarthritis in mice by inhibiting several different biological signals of inflammation.
This may have implications for many different diseases. For instance, inflammation has been linked to various forms of dementia, so terpenes that suppress it might help with this illness. At least one study has found evidence that linalool can reduce Alzheimer’s-like symptoms in mice.
#2: α-Humulene
This is another terpene that may have both analgesic and anti-inflammatory properties. In a 2009 study, scientists noted that humulene "exhibited strong anti-inflammatory capabilities when administered orally or via aerosol." More recently, this effect was confirmed in human white blood cells triggered with a pro-inflammatory signal.
#3: α-bisabolol
Alpha-bisabolol is best known as one of the active ingredients in the relaxing herb chamomile. People typically describe its scent as warm, floral, and honey-like. This compound and the flower that produces it have a long history of use in natural medicine for things like allergy reduction and wound healing.
Some of these beneficial effects likely come from its ability to moderate immune system activity. Multiple studies have shown that it can decrease inflammation and may also have antimicrobial properties that could help relieve infections.
#4: ꞵ-Caryophyllene
This terpene is special because it is one of the few plant-based compounds that studies show can directly stimulate CB2 receptors, which are mostly present in the immune and central nervous systems. In addition to acting as a pain reliever, beta-caryophyllene has been found to have protective effects against inflammation in rats and mice.
Other potentially helpful properties include antioxidant activity and promoting healthy skin growth. This terpene has demonstrated beneficial effects on wound healing in injured animals.
#5: Myrcene
We mentioned above that myrcene is an abundant terpene in cannabis that may help with pain. Research suggests it also has antibacterial and anti-inflammatory properties. Possible health applications that have been shown in animal studies include treating gastrointestinal disease, reducing asthma symptoms, and protecting against unhealthy inflammation of the kidneys.
#6: Borneol
This terpene is named after Borneo, the country where it was first isolated. It’s found in a variety of plants in addition to cannabis and has gained widespread attention for having a variety of potential medical uses, including treatment of problems with blood flow in the brain. It exhibits anti-inflammatory effects and may help protect nerve cells against oxidative stress.
Borneol’s distinctive aroma is woodsy, spicy, and sharp. It reminds some people of conifer forests and others of mint.
Conclusion
The cannabis plant contains a wealth of helpful compounds that may help relieve pain, swelling, soreness, and more. While those listed above may be the best-studied terpenes for soreness and inflammation, there are likely many others with similar effects, as well as other wellness benefits like reducing anxiety and stress.
Some evidence suggests that these helpful effects may work best when multiple terpenes and cannabinoids are used in combination. If you’re interested in experiencing the wellness-promoting power of terpenes for yourself, we recommend our Daily Calm Full-Spectrum CBD Oil. Made from organic full-spectrum hemp extract, it contains a complete blend of the hundreds of terpenes and minor cannabinoids that complement the soothing, calming properties of CBD.
At FOCL, we take quality seriously. Our full-spectrum CBD oil is produced in facilities that comply with current Good Manufacturing Practice (cGMP) standards and tested by reliable third-party labs to ensure purity. Enjoy clean, safe, terpene-enhanced wellness with FOCL!
